Oil and Gas Degradation

Schink B. 1985. DEGRADATION OF UNSATURATED HYDROCARBONS BY METHANOGENIC ENRICHMENT CULTURES. FEMS Microbiology Ecology. 31:69-78.

Massie LC, Ward AP, Davies JM. 1985. THE EFFECTS OF OIL EXPLORATION AND PRODUCTION IN THE NORTHERN NORTH SEA 2. MICROBIAL BIODEGRADATION OF HYDROCARBONS IN WATER AND SEDIMENTS 1978-1981. Marine Environmental Research. 15:235-262.

Bauer JE, Capone DG. 1985. DEGRADATION AND MINERALIZATION OF THE POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS ANTHRACENE AND NAPHTHALENE IN INTERTIDAL MARINE SEDIMENTS. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 50:81-90.

Goutx MMH, Leveau M, Bertrand JC. 1985. EFFECTS OF HYDROCARBON BIODEGRADATION PRODUCTS ON THE GROWTH AND PHYSIOLOGY OF TWO MARINE MICROALGAE. Marine Environmental Research. 17:289-290.

Burns KA, Villeneuve JP, Fowler SW. 1985. FLUXES AND RESIDENCE TIMES OF HYDROCARBONS IN THE COASTAL MEDITERRANEAN HOW IMPORTANT ARE THE BIOTA. Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science. 20:313-330.

Chapman P. 1985. SPECIAL REPORT 2. OIL CONCENTRATIONS IN SEAWATER FOLLOWING DISPERSION WITH AND WITHOUT THE USE OF CHEMICAL DISPERSANTS A REVIEW OF PUBLISHED DATA. Chapman, P. Special Report 2. Oil Concentrations in Seawater Following Dispersion with and without the Use of Chemical Dispersants: A Review of Published Data. Iii+23p. Sea Fisheries Research Institute: Cape Town, South Africa. Illus. Paper. :III+23P.

Rontani JF, Rambeloarisoa E, Bertrand JC, Giusti G. 1985. FAVORABLE INTERACTION BETWEEN PHOTOOXIDATION AND BACTERIAL DEGRADATION OF ANTHRACENE IN SEA WATER. Chemosphere. 14:1909-1912.

Hungspreugs M, Silpipat S, Tonapong C, Lee RF, Windom HL, Tenore KR. 1984. HEAVY METALS AND POLY CYCLIC HYDRO CARBON COMPOUNDS IN BENTHIC ORGANISMS OF THE UPPER GULF OF THAILAND. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 15:213-218.

Barth T. 1984. WEATHERING OF CRUDE-OIL IN NATURAL MARINE ENVIRONMENTS - THE CONCENTRATION OF POLAR DEGRADATION PRODUCTS IN WATER UNDER OIL AS MEASURED IN SEVERAL FIELD STUDIES. Chemosphere. 13:67-86.

Fedorak PM, Semple KM, Westlake DWS. 1984. OIL-DEGRADING CAPABILITIES OF YEASTS AND FUNGI ISOLATED FROM COASTAL MARINE ENVIRONMENTS. Canadian Journal of Microbiology. 30:565-571.

Pages

Why the Oceans Matter

From National Geographic

These vast bodies of water surrounding the continents are critical to humankind. But overfishing and global warming threaten to leave this vital habitat barren.

The ocean is a continuous body of saltwater that covers more than 70 percent of the Earth's surface. Ocean currents govern the world's weather and churn a kaleidoscope of life. Humans depend on these teeming waters for comfort and survival, but global warming and overfishing threaten to leave the ocean agitated and empty.

Geographers divide the ocean into four major sections: the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, and Arctic. Smaller ocean regions are called seas, gulfs, and bays, such as the Mediterranean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, and the Bay of Bengal. Stand-alone bodies of saltwater like the Caspian Sea and the Great Salt Lake are distinct from the world's oceans.

The oceans hold about 320 million cubic miles (1.35 billion cubic kilometers) of water, which is roughly 97 percent of Earth's water supply. The water is about 3.5 percent salt and contains traces of all chemical elements found on Earth. The oceans absorb the sun's heat, transferring it to the atmosphere and distributing it around the world via the ever-moving ocean currents. This drives global weather patterns and acts as a heater in the winter and an air conditioner in the summer.

Life began in the ocean, and the ocean remains home to the majority of Earth's plants and animals—from tiny single-celled organisms to the blue whale, the planet's largest living animal.

Most of the ocean's plant life consists of microscopic algae called phytoplankton that float at the surface and through photosynthesis produce about half of the oxygen that humans and all other terrestrial creatures breathe. Seaweed and kelp are big algae easily visible to the naked eye. Marine plants with roots, like seagrasses, can only survive as deep as the sun’s rays can support photosynthesis—about 650 feet (200 meters). Nearly half of the ocean is more than 9,800 feet (3,000 meters) deep.

The deepest reaches of the ocean are largely devoid of life, but biological hotspots appear around places like hydrothermal vents. These chimney-like structures spew gases and mineral-rich water from beneath the Earth's crust. Tube worms, clams, and mussels gather around the vents to feed on heat-loving bacteria. Bizarre fish with sensitive eyes, translucent fangs, and bioluminescent lures lurk about in nearby waters.

Other fish, octopuses, squid, eels, dolphins, and whales ply the open waters while crabs, lobsters, starfish, oysters, and snails crawl and scoot along the ocean bottom. Creatures like jellyfish lack their own way to get around and are mostly left to the whim of the wind and currents. Mammals like otters, walruses, and even polar bears also depend on the ocean for their survival and dip in and out as their biology requires.

Colonies of polyps form coral reefs as they die. The reefs are mostly found in shallow tropical waters and are home to a brilliant mosaic of polyps, plants, and fish. Coral reefs are also visible victims of human activity. Global warming, siltation, pollution, and other phenomena are stressing the corals to death, and overzealous fishers net more food than the reefs can restore.